Logic in Islamic Studies

DR. AJI HOESODO

 

 

Islamic logic was inspired primarily by Aristotle’s logical corpus, the Organon (which according to a late Greek taxonomy also included the Rhetoric and Poetics). Islamic authors were also familiar with some elements in Stoic logic and linguistic theory, and their logical sources included not only Aristotle’s own works but also the works of the late Greek Aristotelian commentators, the Isagog of Porphyry and the logical writings of Galen. However, most of the logical work of the Islamic philosophers remained squarely within the tradition of Aristotelian logic, and most of their writings in this area were in the form of commentaries on Aristotle.

 

For the Islamic philosophers, logic included not only the study of formal patterns of inference and their validity but also elements of the philosophy of language and even of epistemology and metaphysics. Because of territorial disputes with the Arabic grammarians, Islamic philosophers were very interested in working out the relationship between logic and language, and they devoted much discussion to the question of the subject matter and aims of logic in relation to reasoning and speech.

 

In the area of formal logical analysis, they elaborated upon the theory of terms, propositions and syllogisms as formulated in Aristotle’s Categories, De interpretatione and Prior Analytics. In the spirit of Aristotle, they considered the syllogism to be the form to which all rational argumentation could be reduced, and they regarded syllogistic theory as the focal point of logic. Even poetics was considered as a syllogistic art in some fashion by most of the major Islamic Aristotelians.

 

Since logic was viewed as an organon or instrument by which to acquire knowledge, logic in the Islamic world also incorporated a general theory of argumentation focused upon epistemological aims. This element of Islamic logic centred upon the theory of demonstration found in Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics, since demonstration was considered the ultimate goal sought by logic. Other elements of the theory of argumentation, such as dialectics and rhetoric, were viewed as secondary to demonstration, since it was held that these argument forms produced cognitive states inferior in certitude and stability to demonstration. The philosopher’s aim was ultimately to demonstrate necessary and certain truth; the use of dialectical and rhetorical arguments was accounted for as preparatory to demonstration, as defensive of its conclusions, or as aimed at communicating its results to a broader audience.

 

The subject matter and aims of logic

Rationality in Islam

DR. AJI HOESODO

THE MEANING OF RELIGION AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH REVELATION

Religion (din) is an all-round movement in the light of faith in Allah and a sense of responsibility for the formation of thought and belief, for the promotion of high principles of human morality for the establishment of good relations among members of the society and the elimination of every sort of undue discrimination. 

 

Religion. There is no doubt that each member of the human race is naturally drawn to his fellow-men and that in his life in society he acts in ways which are interrelated and interconnected. One cannot perform just any act in any place or after any other act. There is an order which must be observed.

 

There is, therefore, an order which governs the actions man performs in the journey of this life, an order against which his actions cannot rebel. In reality, these acts all originate from a distinct source. That source is man’s desire to possess a felicitous life, a life in which he can reach to the greatest extent possible the objects of his desire, and be gratified. Or, one could say that man wishes to provide in a more complete way for his needs in order to continue his existence.

 

This is why man continually conforms his actions to rules and laws either devised by himself or accepted from others, and why he selects a particular way of life for himself among all the other existing possibilities. He works in order to provide for his means of livelihood and expects his activities to be guided by laws and regulations that must be followed. In order to satisfy his sense of taste and overcome hunger and thirst, he eats and drinks, for he considers eating and drinking necessary for the continuation of his own happy existence. This rule could be multiplied by many other instances.

 

The totality of these fundamental beliefs concerning the nature of man and the Universe, and regulations in conformity with them which are applied to human life, is called religion (din). If there are divergences in these fundamental beliefs and regulations, they are called schools such as the Sunni and Shi’ite schools in Islam and the Nestorian in Christianity. We can therefore say that man, even if he does not believe in the Deity, can never be without religion if we recognize religion as a program for life based on firm belief. Religion can never be separated from life and is not simply a matter of ceremonial acts.

 

Divine revelation plays a very important role in the Muslim faith. While religious books of most faiths acknowledge their human author’s contribution to the divine text, the Qur’an claims to have been revealed word by word and letter by letter. The Qur’an is therefore, no doubt, a milestone in the development of revelation literature, and its authenticity is not seriously questioned Islam knows different forms and degrees of divine revelation. See for example.

 

Muslims believe that God revealed his final message to humanity through Muhammad ibn Abdullah (c. 570 – July 6, 632) via the angel Gabriel.  Muhammad is considered to have been God’s final prophet, the “Seal of the Prophets“. The revelations Muhammad preached form the holy book of Islam, the Qur’an. The Qur’an is believed to be the flawless final revelation of God to humanity, valid until the day of the Resurrection.

 

Muslims hold that the message of Islam – submission to the will of the one God – is the same as the message preached by all the messengers sent by God to humanity since Adam. From an Islamic point of view, Islam is the oldest of the monotheistic religions because it represents both the original and the final revelation of God to Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. Members of all sects of Islam believe that the Qur’an codifies the direct words of God.

 

According to Islamic traditions, Muhammad began receiving revelations from God (Arabic: ألله Allah) from the age of 40, delivered through the angel Gabriel over the last 23 years of his life. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur’an, was memorized and recorded by his followers and compiled into a single volume shortly after his death. The Qur’an, along with the details of Muhammad’s life as recounted by his biographers and his contemporaries, forms the basis of Islami.  Muslims do not regard him as the founder of a new religion but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and other prophets whose messages had become misinterpreted or corrupted over time (only misinterpreted according to some).

 

the rationality or rationalization of religion

Men have long argued over the authority that human intellect has in relation to the Divine.

Acquiring Knowledge in Islamic Mysticism

DR. AJI HOESODO

Introduction

Knowledge can be acquired through reflection, unveiling, or scripture. The human subtle reality (al Latifat al-Insan-iyya), also called the “ soul “ (nafs), knows in a variety of modes are reason (‘aql) and heart (qalb). Aql, as shown by its root meaning, is that which limits the free and ties down the unconstricted.  Qalb means fluctuation, for the heart undergoes constant change and transmutation in keeping with the newer repeating self disclosures of God.

 

The Rational Faculty

Reason or the rational faculty is the fundamental power of the human soul. Spiritual being may also posses the faculty known as ‘aql, but then it might be more accurate to say that the spiritual being is itself a ‘aql. In such contexts, the word can be translated better as “intellect “is the luminous pole of creation., sometimes identified with Breath of Allah Merciful.

Islamic philosophy

DR. AJI HOESODO

Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between philosophy (reason) and the religious teachings of Islam (faith).

           

The attempt to fuse religion and philosophy is difficult because there are no clear preconditions. Philosophers typically hold that one must accept the possibility of truth from any source and follow the argument wherever it leads. On the other hand, classical religious believers have a set of religious principles that they hold to be unchallengeable fact. Given these divergent goals and views, some hold that one cannot simultaneously be a philosopher and a true adherent of Islam, which is believed to be a revealed religion by its adherents. In this view, all attempts at synthesis ultimately fail.

           

However, others believe that a synthesis between Islam and philosophy is possible. One way to find a synthesis is to use philosophical arguments to prove that one’s preset religious principles are true. This is a common technique found in the writings of many religious traditions, including Judaism, Christianity and Islam, but this is not generally accepted as true philosophy by philosophers. Another way to find a synthesis is to abstain from holding as true any religious principles of one’s faith at all, unless one independently comes to those conclusions from a philosophical analysis. However, this is not generally accepted as being faithful to one’s religion by adherents of that religion. A third, rarer and more difficult path is to apply analytical philosophy to one’s own religion. In this case a religious person would also be a philosopher, by asking questions such as:

• What must one actually believe to be considered a true adherent of our religion?
• How can one reconcile the findings of science with religion?
• How can one reconcile the findings of math with religion?

Introduction

Islamic philosophy may be defined in a number of different ways, but the perspective taken here is that it represents the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture. This description does not suggest that it is necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor even that it is exclusively produced by Muslims.

Formative influences

Islamic philosophy as the name implies refers to philosophical activity within the Islamic milieu.

Prophethood

DR. AJI HOESODO           

Prophethood is not unknown to heavenly revealed religions, such as Judaism and Christianity.  In Islam, however, it has a special status and significance.

According to Islam, God created man for a noble purpose: to worship Him and lead a virtuous life based on His teachings and guidance.  How would man know his role and the purpose of his existence unless he received clear and practical instructions of what God wants him to do?  Here comes the need for prophethood.  Thus God has chosen from every nation at least one prophet to convey His Message to people.

One might ask, how were the prophets chosen and who were entitled to this great honor?  Prophethood is God’s blessing and favor that He may bestow on whom He wills.  However, from surveying the various messengers throughout history, three features of a prophet may be recognized:

1. He is the best in his community morally and intellectually.  This is necessary because a prophet’s life serves as a role model for his followers.  His personality should attract people to accept his message rather than drive them away by his imperfect character.  After receiving the message, he is infallible.  That is, he would not commit any sin.  He might make some minor mistakes, which are usually corrected by revelation.
2. He is supported by miracles to prove that he is not an imposter.  Those miracles are granted by the power and permission of God and are usually in the field in which his people excel and are recognized as superior.  We might illustrate this by quoting the major miracles of the three prophets of the major world religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam.  Moses’ contemporaries were excellent in magic, so his major miracle was to defeat the best magicians of Egypt of his day.  Jesus’ contemporaries were recognized as skilled physicians, therefore, his miracles were to raise the dead and cure incurable diseases.  The Arabs, the contemporaries of the Prophet Muhammad, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him, were known for their eloquence and magnificent poetry.  So Prophet Muhammad’s major miracle was the Quran, the equivalent of which the whole legion of Arab poets and orators could not produce, despite the repeated challenge from the Quran itself.  Again, Muhammad’s miracle has something special about it.  All previous miracles were limited to its time and place; that is, they were shown to specific people at a specific time.  Not so with the miracle of Prophet Muhammad, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him, the Quran.  It is a universal and everlasting miracle.  Previous generations witnessed it and future generations will witness its miraculous nature in terms of its style, content and spiritual uplifting.  These can still be tested and will thereby prove the divine origin of the Quran.
3. Every prophet states clearly that what he receives is not of his own making, but from God, for the well-being of mankind.  He also confirms what was revealed before him and what may be revealed after him.  A prophet does this to show that he is simply conveying the message that is entrusted to him by the One True God of all people in all ages.  So the message is one in essence and for the same purpose.  Therefore, it should not deviate from what was revealed before him or what might come after him.

 

Prophets are necessary for conveying God’s instructions and guidance to mankind.  We have no way of knowing why we were created.  What will happen to us after death?  Is there any life after death?  Are we accountable for our actions?  These and so many other questions about God, angels, paradise, hell, and more, cannot be answered without direct revelation from the Creator and Knower of the unseen.  Those answers must be authentic and must be brought by individuals whom we trust and respect.